PLAN

INTRODUCTION.. 3

1. BORROWED WORDS AND THEIR PROPERTIES. 5

1.1 ETYMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE WORD-STOCK OF A LANGUAGE. 5

1.2 BORROWED WORDS, KINDS OF BORROWED WORDS. 7

1.3 THE INFLUENCE OF BORROWINGS ON THE VOCABULARY OF MODERN ENGLISH.. 9

2. STRUCRURAL CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS. 15

2.1 СLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE BORROWED ASPECT. 15

2.2 СLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF ASSIMILATION.. 18

3. EMPIRICAL PART. 25

... 3.1 ANALISIS OF LOAN WORDS IN THE BRITISH NATIONAL ANTHEM “GOD SAVE THE QUEEN”. 25

3.2 FRENCH LEXICON INFLUENCES ON ENGLISH WRITERS’ WORKS OF THE XIX-XX CENTURES. 30

3.3 BORROWINGS IN SCIENTIFIC-TECHNICAL, RELIGIOUS AND OTHER CONTENTS IN MODERN ENGLISH.. 43

CONCLUSION.. 52

THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE. 55

APPENDIX ES………………………………………………………………………59

Introduction

Borrowing as means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is of much greater importance and is comparatively active only in the field of scientific terminology and social-political terminology as many terms are often made up of borrowed morphemes, mostly morphemes from classical languages.

The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. Russian, French and German history contains innumerable occasions for all types of such contacts. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community.

The development of the contacts between nations and the dominance of English language as business language cause a big flow of words into English language, thus enriching its word – stock.

The influence of Russian, French and German borrowings exerted on English language is seen in all aspects of life, social, political and hardly any walk of live was unaffected by it. The first point to be emphasized is that here we are not dealing with completely new ideas introduced from a different type of civilization and culture, but rather the imposing by a dominant race of their own terms for ideas which were already familiar to the subject race. Such a state of affairs obviously means that there will arise pairs of words the native and the foreign term for the same idea and a struggle for survival between the two, so that one of the words was eventually lost from the language, or survived only with some differentiation of meaning.

Borrowed words have been called «The milestones of philology» – said O. Jespersen – because they permit us (show us) to fix appreciatively the dates of linguistic changes. They show us the course of civilization and give us information of the nation’s». The well-known linguist Shuchard said: «No language is entirely pure», that all the languages are mixed. Borrowed words enter the language as a result of influence of two main causes of factors; linguistic and extra-linguistic.

Borrowed words have been considered in many scientific works, monographs and publications. But detailed analysis of words borrowed into English from Russian, French and German in detail hasn^’t been done so far.

A comparative study of the nature and role of native and borrowed words show that borrowing has never been the chief means of replenishing the English vocabulary. Word-formation and semantic development were throughout the entire history of the English language much more productive than borrowing. Besides most native words are marked by a higher frequency value. The great number of borrowings bringing with them new phonon-morphological types, new phonetic morphological and semantic features left its imprint upon the English language. On the other hand under the influence of the borrowed element words already existing in the English changed to some extent their semantic structure, collectability, frequency and word forming ability. Borrowing also considerably enlarged the English vocabulary and brought about some changes in English synonymic groups, in the distribution of the English vocabulary through sphere of application and in the lexical divergence between the two variants of the literary national language and its dialects.

The main constituent part of the vocabulary system of any language is formed by borrowed words. The number of  loan words in modern English language is indeed so high that many foreign scholars ( L. P. Smith, H. Bradly and other) were inclined to reduce the study of the English vocabulary to the discussion of its etymology, taking it for granted that the development of English was mainly due to borrowing.

The actuality of the qualification paper is determined by increased interest of linguistic in studying the origin of words and the source of borrowings. Still much is left to investigate.

The purpose of the qualification paper is to reveal borrowed words that were loaned from Russian, French and German borrowings into English and determine the origin and the source of them.

We can put forward a hypothesis that changes in a society and occurrence of the new phenomena for which new concepts are necessary, lead to changes in lexicon.

The tasks of the investigation include:

• to reveal Russian, French and German borrowings in Modern English  language.
• to determine the reasons of enriching the vocabulary of any language.
• to investigate the correlation of borrowings with native words.

Practical significance of the results of investigation consists in the fact they can be used in:

1. teaching English for our students.
2. compiling practical courses of English.
3. compiling bilingual dictionaries.
4. writing lectures on lexicology and theory of translation.

Investigations have been carried out on a vast language material, based on lexicographic sources. We used mainly monolingual, bilingual and encyclopedic dictionaries.

The structure of the qualification paper.

It includes introduction, chapters, conclusion, list of used literature.

Content

Introduction. 3

1.   Inventing English. 4

1.1History of the English language. 4

1.2 New Words and Worlds in Early Modern English. 7

2. Borrowed words and their properties. 12

2.1 Etymological survey of the word-stock of a language. 12

2.2 The influence of borrowings on the vocabulary of modern English. 14

Conclusion. 20

References. 22

Appendix A.. 24

Appendix B.. 26

Appendix C.. 27

Introduction

How is it that English has such a huge vocabulary, larger than any other language on earth? In addition to various word formation mechanisms existing in other languages, such as onomatopoeia, derivation, affixation, compounding and functional extension, the major source for the large variety of English words is its dramatic history. The 1,600 years of English existence have been witness to massive revolutionary changes in the language as it mixed with and continuously borrowed from other languages, with which it came into contact.

Early English roots trace back to the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons to Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries resulting in Old English being mainly Germanic. 83% of the most common 1000 words in today's English are of Anglo-Saxon origin.

The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. Russian, French and German history contains innumerable occasions for all types of such contacts. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community.

The development of the contacts between nations and the dominance of English language as business language cause a big flow of words into English language, thus enriching its word – stock.

The influence of Latin, French, Russian  and German borrowings exerted on English language is seen in all aspects of life, social, political and hardly any walk of live was unaffected by it. The first point to be emphasized is that here we are not dealing with completely new ideas introduced from a different type of civilization and culture, but rather the imposing by a dominant race of their own terms for ideas which were already familiar to the subject race. Such a state of affairs obviously means that there will arise pairs of words the native and the foreign term for the same idea and a struggle for survival between the two, so that one of the words was eventually lost from the language, or survived only with some differentiation of meaning.

The main constituent part of the vocabulary system of any language is formed by borrowed words. The number of  loan words in modern English language is indeed so high that many foreign scholars ( L. P. Smith, H. Bradly and other) were inclined to reduce the study of the English vocabulary to the discussion of its etymology, taking it for granted that the development of English was mainly due to borrowing.

The purpose of the paper is to reveal borrowed words that were loaned from Latin, French and German borrowings into English and determine the origin and the source of them.

We can put forward a hypothesis that changes in a society and occurrence of the new phenomena for which new concepts are necessary, lead to changes in lexicon.

PLAN

INTRODUCTION.. 3

1. BORROWED WORDS AND THEIR PROPERTIES. 5

1.1 ETYMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE WORD-STOCK OF A LANGUAGE. 5

1.2 BORROWED WORDS, KINDS OF BORROWED WORDS. 7

1.3 THE INFLUENCE OF BORROWINGS ON THE VOCABULARY OF MODERN ENGLISH.. 9

2. STRUCRURAL CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS. 15

2.1 СLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE BORROWED ASPECT. 15

2.2 СLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF ASSIMILATION.. 18

3. EMPIRICAL PART. 25

3.1 FOREIGN LEXICON INFLUENCES ON ENGLISH WRITERS’ WORKS OF THE XIX-XX CENTURES. 25

3.2 BORROWINGS IN SCIENTIFIC-TECHNICAL, RELIGIOUS AND OTHER CONTENTS IN MODERN ENGLISH.. 48

CONCLUSION.. 53

THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE. 56

APPENDIX A.. 60

LIST OF RUSSIAN BORROWINGS IN MODERN ENGLISH.. 60

FRENCH AFFIXES. 65

Introduction

Borrowing as means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is of much greater importance and is comparatively active only in the field of scientific terminology and social-political terminology as many terms are often made up of borrowed morphemes, mostly morphemes from classical languages.

The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. Russian, French and German history contains innumerable occasions for all types of such contacts. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community.

The development of the contacts between nations and the dominance of English language as business language cause a big flow of words into English language, thus enriching its word – stock.

The influence of Russian, French and German borrowings exerted on English language is seen in all aspects of life, social, political and hardly any walk of live was unaffected by it. The first point to be emphasized is that here we are not dealing with completely new ideas introduced from a different type of civilization and culture, but rather the imposing by a dominant race of their own terms for ideas which were already familiar to the subject race. Such a state of affairs obviously means that there will arise pairs of words the native and the foreign term for the same idea and a struggle for survival between the two, so that one of the words was eventually lost from the language, or survived only with some differentiation of meaning.

Borrowed words have been called «The milestones of philology» – said O. Jespersen – because they permit us (show us) to fix appreciatively the dates of linguistic changes. They show us the course of civilization and give us information of the nation’s». The well-known linguist Shuchard said: «No language is entirely pure», that all the languages are mixed. Borrowed words enter the language as a result of influence of two main causes of factors; linguistic and extra-linguistic.

Borrowed words have been considered in many scientific works, monographs and publications. But detailed analysis of words borrowed into English from Russian, French and German in detail hasn^’t been done so far.

A comparative study of the nature and role of native and borrowed words show that borrowing has never been the chief means of replenishing the English vocabulary. Word-formation and semantic development were throughout the entire history of the English language much more productive than borrowing. Besides most native words are marked by a higher frequency value. The great number of borrowings bringing with them new phonon-morphological types, new phonetic morphological and semantic features left its imprint upon the English language. On the other hand under the influence of the borrowed element words already existing in the English changed to some extent their semantic structure, collectability, frequency and word forming ability. Borrowing also considerably enlarged the English vocabulary and brought about some changes in English synonymic groups, in the distribution of the English vocabulary through sphere of application and in the lexical divergence between the two variants of the literary national language and its dialects.

The main constituent part of the vocabulary system of any language is formed by borrowed words. The number of  loan words in modern English language is indeed so high that many foreign scholars ( L. P. Smith, H. Bradly and other) were inclined to reduce the study of the English vocabulary to the discussion of its etymology, taking it for granted that the development of English was mainly due to borrowing.

The actuality of the qualification paper is determined by increased interest of linguistic in studying the origin of words and the source of borrowings. Still much is left to investigate.

The purpose of the qualification paper is to reveal borrowed words that were loaned from Russian, French and German borrowings into English and determine the origin and the source of them.

We can put forward a hypothesis that changes in a society and occurrence of the new phenomena for which new concepts are necessary, lead to changes in lexicon.

The tasks of the investigation include:

• to reveal Russian, French and German borrowings in Modern English  language.
• to determine the reasons of enriching the vocabulary of any language.
• to investigate the correlation of borrowings with native words.

Practical significance of the results of investigation consists in the fact they can be used in:

1. teaching English for our students.
2. compiling practical courses of English.
3. compiling bilingual dictionaries.
4. writing lectures on lexicology and theory of translation.

Investigations have been carried out on a vast language material, based on lexicographic sources. We used mainly monolingual, bilingual and encyclopedic dictionaries.

The structure of the qualification paper.

It includes introduction, chapters, conclusion, list of used literature.

Plan

Introduction……………………………………………………………………3

CHAPTER I Idioms as object of linguistic research………………………….5

1.1  A subject and problems of idioms…………………………………..5

1.2 Ways of forming idioms……………………………………………7

1.3 Semantic classification of idioms…………………………………..9

1.4 Structural classification of idioms…………………………………10

CHAPTER II Types of idioms from the point of view of semantic stability...13

2.1 Differences and Usage of idioms in American English and British English………………………………………………………………………..13

2.2 Idioms in proverbs…………………………………………………17

2.3 Indirect speech acts as idioms……………………………………..18

2.4 The difficulty of translation of idioms…………………………….20

CHAPTER III The use of games for presenting and revising idioms………..25

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………30

Bibliography………………………………………………………………….32

Introduction

In this Qualification Paper we’ve set forth to study the translation methods of idioms in a deeper level, their types and ways of their translation of English literature, to consider the function of English literature in everyday life of the humanity.

The object of this Qualification paper can be considered as one that gives the detailed review of the ways English idioms can be translated into Russian language. It also helps to improve one’s understanding of the principal rules of translation which plays leading role while processing translation.

The aim of this work is to introduce the translation approach to
English idioms so that to make it easy to perceive for those willing to keep up their educational and scientific carrier in the science of translation, it was purposed to broaden their view on translation studies and peculiar features while translating English literature.

In this work we set the following tasks:            

- to review all the sources of English idioms

- to reveal the methods of translation of English idioms

- to investigate grammatical, lexical, stylistic and phraseological difficulties of translation of English idioms

We should mention that this research work represents a great theoretical value for those willing to take up their future carrier in the field of translations as invaluable reference to the methods and the ways of translation of English literature.

And the practical value of this work involves the idea that translation represents a field aimed at training future translators/ interpreters to translate verbal and written materials on subjects of idioms basing on the study of International literature, to differentiate the language features of English, Russian and other languages as well as lexicology, phraseology, syntax and style.

The source information for this research work has been carefully studied and investigated before it was applied to the given work.

The originality of this work is in its creative approach to the study and methods of translation, besides, it contains a detailed review of ways and methods of translation.

The given Qualification paper contains introduction, three chapters, conclusion and bibliography list.

The first chapter gives a detailed review of the study of the subject of idioms and also reveals the role of English literature and terms in everyday life of the humanity which are believed to be interesting to future translator/ interpreters. It also discussed the methods of translation of English literature with purpose to make it easier for translator to achieve adequate translation in the target language.

The second chapter deals with the detailed study of grammatical, lexical, stylistic difficulties involved in translation of idioms. It also gives some hints on translation of idioms and their behavior in literature.

In the  third chapter we tried to show using of idioms in different aspects.

We have also attached some samples of translation of English idioms so that to enable the future translator to benefit from the given paper in their further researches in the fields of translation.

In conclusion we have summed up the results of our laborious investigation translation of English literature.

At the end of the research paper we have attached the bibliography list to enable the future translator to use information sources used in this Paper.

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Conclusion. 20

References. 22

Appendix A.. 24

Appendix B.. 26

Appendix C.. 27

Introduction

How is it that English has such a huge vocabulary, larger than any other language on earth? In addition to various word formation mechanisms existing in other languages, such as onomatopoeia, derivation, affixation, compounding and functional extension, the major source for the large variety of English words is its dramatic history. The 1,600 years of English existence have been witness to massive revolutionary changes in the language as it mixed with and continuously borrowed from other languages, with which it came into contact.

Early English roots trace back to the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons to Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries resulting in Old English being mainly Germanic. 83% of the most common 1000 words in today's English are of Anglo-Saxon origin.

The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. Russian, French and German history contains innumerable occasions for all types of such contacts. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community.

The development of the contacts between nations and the dominance of English language as business language cause a big flow of words into English language, thus enriching its word – stock.

The influence of Latin, French, Russian  and German borrowings exerted on English language is seen in all aspects of life, social, political and hardly any walk of live was unaffected by it. The first point to be emphasized is that here we are not dealing with completely new ideas introduced from a different type of civilization and culture, but rather the imposing by a dominant race of their own terms for ideas which were already familiar to the subject race. Such a state of affairs obviously means that there will arise pairs of words the native and the foreign term for the same idea and a struggle for survival between the two, so that one of the words was eventually lost from the language, or survived only with some differentiation of meaning.

The main constituent part of the vocabulary system of any language is formed by borrowed words. The number of  loan words in modern English language is indeed so high that many foreign scholars ( L. P. Smith, H. Bradly and other) were inclined to reduce the study of the English vocabulary to the discussion of its etymology, taking it for granted that the development of English was mainly due to borrowing.

The purpose of the paper is to reveal borrowed words that were loaned from Latin, French and German borrowings into English and determine the origin and the source of them.

We can put forward a hypothesis that changes in a society and occurrence of the new phenomena for which new concepts are necessary, lead to changes in lexicon.

Plan

Introduction. 3

1.Lesson planning. 4

1.1.History and Development of Lesson Planning Study. 4

1.1. Madeline Hunter Method. 7

1.2. Other  methods of lesson planning. 12

Summarising. 18

1.3. Six Common Mistakes in Writing Lesson Plans. 19

2.Practice: composing of lesson plans. 21

2.1.English language lesson in 5th form on a theme "the United Kingdom Great Britain and Northern Ireland" (five-step lesson plan  Herbartian Model) 21

2.2.Lesson of English  on a theme: "My family" in 5th class (SDAIE - Sheltered lesson plan) 25

Conclusion. 29

Appendix A.. 30

Appendix B. 31

Appendix C.. 32

Appendix D.. 33

Appendix E. 34

Appendix F. 35

Appendix G.. 36

Appendix H.. 37

Appendix I 38

Resourses: 39

Introduction

In this Qualification Paper we’ve set forth to study of lesson planning as a special skill that is learned in much the same way as other skills.  When a young teacher  is  able to create his own lesson plans, it means he has  taken a giant step toward "owning" the content he teaches and the methods he uses, and that is a good thing. Acquiring this skill is far more valuable than being able to use lesson plans developed by others. It takes thinking and practice to hone this skill, and it won't happen overnight, but it is a skill that will help to define the one as a teacher. Good lesson plans do not ensure students will learn what is intended, but they certainly contribute to it. Think of a lesson plan as a way of communicating, and without doubt, effective communication skills are fundamental to all teaching. Lesson plans also help new or inexperienced teachers organize content, materials, and methods. When a person is learning the craft of teaching, organizing his subject-matter content via lesson plans is fundamental. Like most skills, he'll get better at it the more he does it and think of ways of improving his planning and teaching based on feedback from his students, their parents, and other teachers. Developing his own lesson plans also helps the teacher "own" the subject matter content he is teaching, and that is central to everything good teachers do.

The Hypothesis of the work is that effective lesson plans communicate, ineffective ones don't. Teachers create lesson plans to communicate their instructional activities regarding specific subject-matter. Almost all lesson plans developed by teachers contain student learning objectives, instructional procedures, the required materials, and some written description of how the students will be evaluated. Many experienced teachers often reduce lesson plans to a mental map or short outline. New teachers, however, usually find detailed lesson plans to be indispensable.

The problem of the topic is that nowadays many yang teachers prefer to use teaching plans written by the others, but not by themselves. Knowing "how to" is far more important than knowing "about" when it comes to lesson plans, and is one of the important markers along the way to becoming a professional teacher.

The relevance of the theme under concern we think lies in the following: planning lessons is a fundamental skill all teachers must develop and hone, although implementation of this skill in actual teaching can, and usually does, take some time. Being able to develop an effective lesson plan format is a core skill for all who teach.

The object of this Qualification paper is a method of an effective “lesson plan  formation” for  foreign language lessons. The subjects are different technologies and approaches to lesson plans.

 The aim of this work is to show the importance and different influence of effective lesson planning on the development of all skills of the pupils.

We want to look at different methods of lesson planning. They are:

Four-step lesson plan

Five-step lesson plan

Seven-step lesson plan (Madeline Hunter Method)

Five-step reflective lesson plan

Six-step clinical lesson plan

Eight-step lesson plan

Twelve-step lesson plan

CALLA instructional plan

SDAIE-Sheltered lesson plan.

These methods can be approbated at schools, Universities, different Institutes, additional language courses for adults, home teaching ets.

The described methods were used in the practice and experiments made of Madeline Hunter, Dr. Bob Kizlik, Chamot A. and O’Mally J. (Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach - CALLA), Tanner D. and Tanner L., prof. Cooper.J.

The Qualification Paper consists of Theoretical part and Practical one.

Contents

Introduction. 3

1.   Metaphor as a language unit 4

1.1 Definitions of a metaphor, its functions. 4

1.2 Types and classifications of a metaphor 7

2.   Characteristics of a metaphor in English and American poetry of the 20^th centure  12

2.1 Function of a metaphor in English poetry. 12

2.2 Understanding the basics of metaphor in American poetry. 13

3.   Analysis of poetry in English and American literature. 17

Conclusion. 26

References. 27

Introduction

The contemporary literature on metaphor in American and English poetry is immense and growing fast. There seems to be no consensus on any fundamental issues in the field. People disagree rather wildly on what sort of phenomenon metaphor is; there are no generally accepted definitions of "metaphor", even for specialized purposes; nor any generally shared extensional demarcation of the area. One person's prime example of metaphor is for the next person not a metaphor at all.

The prospects of finding a theory of metaphor precise enough to be implementable, even in principle, on a computer, and performing tasks like recognizing metaphors or producing intuitively satisfactory representations of metaphoric content seem rather bleak at present. Nevertheless, there is ongoing research that aims to accomplish these daring goals. The aim of this qualification paper is to review some of that work, in the perspective of efforts to understand the phenomenon of metaphor in other fields of learning: both English and American poetry, and to offer some suggestions as to its continuation.

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How is it that English has such a huge vocabulary, larger than any other language on earth? In addition to various word formation mechanisms existing in other languages, such as onomatopoeia, derivation, affixation, compounding and functional extension, the major source for the large variety of English words is its dramatic history. The 1,600 years of English existence have been witness to massive revolutionary changes in the language as it mixed with and continuously borrowed from other languages, with which it came into contact.

Early English roots trace back to the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons to Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries resulting in Old English being mainly Germanic. 83% of the most common 1000 words in today's English are of Anglo-Saxon origin.

The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. Russian, French and German history contains innumerable occasions for all types of such contacts. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community.

The development of the contacts between nations and the dominance of English language as business language cause a big flow of words into English language, thus enriching its word – stock.

The influence of Latin, French, Russian  and German borrowings exerted on English language is seen in all aspects of life, social, political and hardly any walk of live was unaffected by it. The first point to be emphasized is that here we are not dealing with completely new ideas introduced from a different type of civilization and culture, but rather the imposing by a dominant race of their own terms for ideas which were already familiar to the subject race. Such a state of affairs obviously means that there will arise pairs of words the native and the foreign term for the same idea and a struggle for survival between the two, so that one of the words was eventually lost from the language, or survived only with some differentiation of meaning.

The main constituent part of the vocabulary system of any language is formed by borrowed words. The number of  loan words in modern English language is indeed so high that many foreign scholars ( L. P. Smith, H. Bradly and other) were inclined to reduce the study of the English vocabulary to the discussion of its etymology, taking it for granted that the development of English was mainly due to borrowing.

The purpose of the paper is to reveal borrowed words that were loaned from Latin, French and German borrowings into English and determine the origin and the source of them.

We can put forward a hypothesis that changes in a society and occurrence of the new phenomena for which new concepts are necessary, lead to changes in lexicon.

Content

Introduction. 3

1.  Principals of English grammar teaching. 5

1.1 What is foreign language grammar teaching. 5

1.2 Changers in the history of English Language Teaching. 6

2. Different methods of grammar teaching. 11

2.1 The role of games on language lessons. 11

2.2 Integrating faith and learning in teaching English in grammar classes. 14

2.3 Singing Grammar 16

2.4 Integrated lessons. 21

Conclusion. 32

Literature. 33

Appendix 34

Introduction

New time, new conditions of professional activity requires a revision, both general methodology and specific methods and techniques in teaching English.

The rapid entry of  Russian-speaking countries into the international community, the integration processes in various spheres of politics, economics, cultures, ideologies, mixing and displacement of peoples and languages, raising the issue of intercultural dialogue, mutual understanding, dialogue participants belonging to different cultures.

Naturally, all this affects the methods of teaching English, raises new issues in theory and practice of teaching English. Also we should take into consideration another significant factor. With the development of high technologies, the role of information and knowledge increases greatly at all levels and in all spheres of social development.

It is important to note: for the specialist of English  is no longer sufficient to have information in their native language only. He needs to be aware of new tendencies  of  his sphere in the world. This is why UNESCO marked the coming century as the century of polyglots.

On the basis of the above said we can see the increasing importance of English language training, the formation of communicative competence. The problem of teaching English as a means of communication becomes, therefore, of particular relevance in the modern technique.

In recent years, is a growing focus on such type of learning, which stimulates the intellectual and moral development of the individual student, and activates his potential, forms a critical thinking.

Maximum development of communication skills - this is the basic, forward-looking, but very difficult challenge for teachers of English. To solve it requires on the one hand, learn new teaching methods aimed at developing all four types of speech activity, the formation of linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences, and on the other, to create a fundamentally new educational materials to help you teach people how to communicate effectively in English.

Grammar is not the most exciting subject at English lessons, but it is very difficult and very important. Grammar used to be taught using a language book, learning about parts of speech and other subjects of the language, doing exercises. Now grammar is usually taught with writing, and it is taught through mini-lessons. It may also be taught in literature ways when teacher discuss with students how an author writes or character`s speech pattern. When you teach grammar with new interesting methods, students are more likely to remember the grammar rules and apply them to their everyday life.

The aim of the paper work is to analyze different new methods of teaching English grammar.

The objectives of the work are:

1. to study the history of grammar teaching methods evolution;

2. to describe different methods;

3. to develop 5 lesson plans based on different methods.

The hypothesis of the paper is that the use of new and non-traditional methods of  teaching grammar successfully develops all language skills of young learners.

The research methods used are:

-review and analysis of methodological and psychological literature;

-questionnaires in order to study the teachers’ experience;

-analyses of development of all language skills;

-observation and evaluation.

e:EN�,>h
Ⱥ��� of the qualification paper is to reveal borrowed words that were loaned from Russian, French and German borrowings into English and determine the origin and the source of them.

We can put forward a hypothesis that changes in a society and occurrence of the new phenomena for which new concepts are necessary, lead to changes in lexicon.

The tasks of the investigation include:

• to reveal Russian, French and German borrowings in Modern English  language.
• to determine the reasons of enriching the vocabulary of any language.
• to investigate the correlation of borrowings with native words.

Practical significance of the results of investigation consists in the fact they can be used in:

1. teaching English for our students.
2. compiling practical courses of English.
3. compiling bilingual dictionaries.
4. writing lectures on lexicology and theory of translation.

Investigations have been carried out on a vast language material, based on lexicographic sources. We used mainly monolingual, bilingual and encyclopedic dictionaries.

The structure of the qualification paper.

It includes introduction, chapters, conclusion, list of used literature.

Content

Introduction. 3

1.   Types of motivation. 5

1.2    Metaphoric type of motivation. 5

1.2 Symbol-based type of motivation. 7

1.3    Intertextuality as factor of motivation. 8

2.   Aspects of etymology. 10

2.1 Historical and etymological research on phraseology. 10

2.2    Folk etymology. 11

2.3    Cultural history. 12

2.4    Intertextuality from the etymological perspective. 12

3. Practical  usage of idioms. 14

3.1 Influence of the American English on the world of idioms.Differences in American and British idioms usage. 14

3.2 The Difficulties of translation into Russian. 16

Conclusion. 20

References. 21

Introduction

In this paper we will discuss some of the problems of idiom motivation with regard to its relationship with etymology.  As is well-known, the synchronic motivation of an idiom often does not coincide with the “true” etymology of that idiom, and sometimes the two can contradict each other. In such cases, the question arises whether it is the synchronic motivation or the etymology that is more important for the functioning of an idiom. This involves examining the external combinatorial restrictions of a given idiom. For any idiom this then becomes the question of whether any such restrictions can be explained by addressing the idiom’s conceptual basis. If so, what are the motivational “bridges”? These could involve how most speakers intuitively construct such bridges (which often takes the form of folk etymology), or it could involve the true etymology of the idiom. Both possibilities are plausible, the latter on the assumption that an idiom’s figurative past may be accessible in the present in the form of traces of an “etymological memory” so that even where speakers do not know the etymology, the idiom is not used in combinatorial surroundings that would violate a historically relevant type of context. The former possibility predicts that speakers use idioms according to the idiom’s personal associations for the speaker, which need not have anything in common with the idiom’s true etymology.

One of the questions in idiom research is the extent to which the image component of a figurative idiom fixed in its inner form reaches into its lexicalized meaning and consequently its pragmatics.

This paper explores two hypotheses: that traces of the image component of idiom semantics can have an effect on the usage of the given idiom, and that, in certain cases, its etymology (as a contributor to its imagery) can thus influence an idiom’s usage conditions.

Psycholinguistic and cognitive-semantic research suggests that speakers, when processing an idiom, map the conceptual domain evoked by the idiom’s lexical structure (source) onto another conceptual domain (target) that underlies that idiom’s lexicalized meaning.

The target concept can then be structured according to the structure of the source concept, so that the source can influence the lexicalized meaning. These are more or less plausible hypotheses about the ways in which motivation can influence the processing of an idiom. It may be that, consequently, such processing can also influence an idiom’s use.

The object of this paper can be considered as one that gives the detailed review of the ways English idioms motivation. It also helps to improve one’s understanding of the principal rules of translation which plays leading role while processing translation.

Our investigation uses Conventional Figurative Language Theory (CFLT)developed by Dobrovolskij and Piirainen (2005) as an appropriate theoretical framework. Central to this theory is the idea that figurative lexical units (pro- totypical idioms and conventional figurative one-word metaphors) differ from non-figurative units (i.e. from “normal” words, collocations etc.) in their semantics since their content plane consists not only of the lexicalized meaning of the conventional figurative unit, but also of the linguistically relevant traces of the underlying image. Dobrovolskij and Piirainen (2009) have developed initial stages of a theory of phraseology, which can be considered a specific implementation of CFLT. The main postulates of CFTL are as follows: idioms are a subset of phrasal lexemes, on the one hand, because of their constitutive characteristics: polylexicality (i.e. they consist of more than one word) and stability (i.e. they are not produced, but reproduced with approximately the same form and meaning).

Because of their idiomaticity, on the other hand, idioms have much in common with other figurative units in the lexicon. The prototypical idiom (the figurative idiom) can be interpreted on two different conceptual levels: on a primary level, i.e. on the level of its “literal” meaning which underlies its inner form, and on a second level, i.e. on the level of its figurative meaning. The latter is also called the lexicalized meaning which is the term we use in this paper. The so-called image component of an idiom takes the role of a semantic bridge between the two levels. What is meant by image component is neither the etymology nor the original image, but linguistically relevant traces of an image that are comprehensible for the majority of speakers. It is an additional conceptual link that mediates between the literal reading (fixed in the idiom’s lexical structure) and the lexicalized meaning of an idiom.

There are also certain points of intersection between CFLT and Conceptual Metaphor Theory. However, CMT is designed to capture fundamental properties of all possible metaphoric expressions, primarily, novel or dynamic metaphors. This makes CMT not quite adequate for describing idioms or conventional metaphors because conventional figurative expressions are mostly based on different principles. Patrick Hanks (2006) points out “that the distinction between conventional metaphors and literal meanings is less important than the distinction between dynamic metaphors and conventional metaphors. Dynamic metaphors are coined to express some new insight; conventional metaphors are just one more kind of normal use of language.” Moreover, many conventional metaphors and idioms are products of their time, so they cannot be accounted for without addressing elements of concrete, basic level images which are mostly culture-specific.

nbsp;&
�;n
`%����; compiling bilingual dictionaries.

1. writing lectures on lexicology and theory of translation.

Investigations have been carried out on a vast language material, based on lexicographic sources. We used mainly monolingual, bilingual and encyclopedic dictionaries.

The structure of the qualification paper.

It includes introduction, chapters, conclusion, list of used literature.

Content

Introduction. 3

1. Phrasal verbs and their role in the English language. 5

1.1   Phrasal verbs definition. 5

1.2 Semantic, structural and grammar peculiarities of phrasal verbs. 8

2. Practical usage of phrasal verbs. 17

2.1 Some Difficulties of Translating English Phrasal Verbs into Russian. 17

2.2 Application in literature. 23

2.3 Phrasal verbs in informal speech. 25

Conclusion. 30

References. 31

Appendixes

Introduction

The role the linguists give to phrasal verbs cannot be overestimated. First of all they reflect the diversity and richness of the language. They present such a lexical layer, which can be considered unique and requires thorough learning and understanding of not only the foreign language itself, but the whole mentality of the nation. Phrasal verbs have been attracting the attention of linguists, dealing both with practice and theory of the teaching the English language, for a long period time.

Despite the growing number of publications devoted to phrasal verbs, there are still a plenty of unsolved problems, connected with this lexical-grammatical phenomenon. First of all there is still complete terminological ambiguity with this aspect. Various authors use different terms to define this linguistic phenomenon. For instance: compound verb (Berman I.M.), complex verb (Korneva E.A.), separable verb (Bolinger), compound verb (Maittaire), group verb (Sweet), semi-compound verb (Kruisinga), verb-adverb combination (Kennedy), merged verb (Aiken), verb-adverb group (Lindelf), separable compound (Curme), poly-word verb (Stevick), two-word verb (Anthony, Taha), post-particle verb (Marchand), phrasal type (Fairclough), discontinuous verb (Live), particled verb (Scott), verb-particle construction (Fraser), and finally, phrasal verb – which was firstly introduced by Logan P.Smith. The last term will be the major topic of investigation of the present work.

However, all linguists are common in the mind that phrasal verbs are the indispensable part of modern English. What is more their role in the lexical fund of the language is constantly growing. Linguists became aware of the necessity of composing a dictionary of phrasal verbs long ago. Strang B.M. writes: “There is great need… of a word-book, thesaurus or dictionary of synonyms wherein one can find as the guide word the common, obvious, even colloquial or slang verb-adverb combinations”. [35, p.18] At present there are some dictionaries of phrasal verbs both explanatory and bilingual dictionaries, for example, Cambridge, Collins Cobuild; Oxford, Longman; Macmillan dictionaries.

The present work is devoted to phrasal verbs as a significant feature of the language.

The goal of this work is to investigate some of them separately and in the context and try to identify the most common and distinct features they possess and to define their significance within the lexical units.

Object: English grammar.

Subject: peculiarities of English phrasal verbs.

The tasks we are to make, the abovementioned goal to achieve, are:

- to define the most common ways of formation of phrasal verbs;

- to classify phrasal verbs in certain groups, lexically and semantically;

-to present the distinctive character of phrasal verbs and their role in the language;

- to reveal the major difficulties the learner of a foreign language faces when translating phrasal verbs into Russian;

- to describe and systemize the use of phrasal verbs in different situations.

Hypothesis: phrasal verbs have multiplied in number and in use. If you demonstrate not only fluent speech but also a richness of the vocabulary you use in the everyday speech and what is more the complete understanding of phrasal verbs, you hear and say, then you may be considered to achieve the very top level of knowing the foreign language.

Methods of research:

-investigation and analysis of scientific literature on English grammar, morphology, lexicology;

- investigation of fiction literature and everyday situations on finding phrasal verbs.

Also in our work we use  the results of Ann Stephens researches of phrasal verbs. She is an American student of North Carolina University at Chapel Hill. The summary of her work was published at the internet site of the University.[3]

a� h
Ⱥ��� race. Such a state of affairs obviously means that there will arise pairs of words the native and the foreign term for the same idea and a struggle for survival between the two, so that one of the words was eventually lost from the language, or survived only with some differentiation of meaning.

The main constituent part of the vocabulary system of any language is formed by borrowed words. The number of  loan words in modern English language is indeed so high that many foreign scholars ( L. P. Smith, H. Bradly and other) were inclined to reduce the study of the English vocabulary to the discussion of its etymology, taking it for granted that the development of English was mainly due to borrowing.

The purpose of the paper is to reveal borrowed words that were loaned from Latin, French and German borrowings into English and determine the origin and the source of them.

We can put forward a hypothesis that changes in a society and occurrence of the new phenomena for which new concepts are necessary, lead to changes in lexicon.

CONTENTS

Introduction…………………………………………………………………….3

1 Slang as a variant of modern youths’ language………………………………6

1.1 Definition……………………………………………………………6

1.2 Origins……………………………………………………………..14

1.3 Development of slang………………………………………………15

1.4 Creators of slang……………………………………………………16

1.5 Sources……………………………………………………………..17

1.6 Linguistic processes forming slang…………………………………17

1.7 Characteristics of slang……………………………………………..18

1.8 Diffusion of slang…………………………………………………..20

1.9 Uses of slang………………………………………………………..21

1.10 Formation………………………………………………………….22

1.11 Position in the Language…………………………………………..23

2 Teen and high school slang………………………………………………….24

         2.1 Along with a Smattering of the Collegiate and Skateboard Jargon…24

         2.2 Yuppies, Dinks and other moderns………………………………….24           2.3 American slang………………………………………………………25

3 Features of American students’ slang functioning…………………………..28

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..32

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………34

Introduction

Slang ... an attempt of common humanity

to escape from bald literalism, and express

itself illimitably ... the wholesome fermentation

or eductation of those processes eternally

active in language, by which froth and specks

are thrown up, mostly to pass away, though

occasionally to settle and permanently crystallise.

Walt Whitman, 1885

Every language allows different kinds of variations: geographical or territorial, perhaps the most obvious, stylistic, the difference between the written and the spoken form of the standard national language and others. It is the national language of England proper, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and some provinces of Canada. It is the official language of
Wales, Scotland, in Gibraltar and on the island of Malta. Modern linguistics distinguishes territorial variants of a national language and local dialects. Variants of a language are regional varieties of a standard literary language characterized by some minor peculiarities in the sound system, vocabulary and grammar and by their own literary norms.

Standard English – the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the radio and the television and spoken by educated people may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood. Its vocabulary is contrasted to dialect words or dialectisms belonging to various local dialects. Local dialects are varieties of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary form. Regional varieties possessing a literary form are called variants. Dialects are said to undergo rapid changes under the pressure of Standard English taught at schools and the speech habits cultivated by radio, television and cinema.

This Qualification Paper is devoted to the study of the topic “Youths’ lexicon of Modern American.”  The choice of a theme of this paper is caused by the small studying of this question by way of teaching it in schools. The youths’ lexicon, as one of branches of lexicon, is a difficult and volumetric question, therefore requires the careful studying. The basic theme of this paper is the question on conversion, as the most productive way of lexicon however the other kinds of formation of new words also are mentioned.

Actuality of research:

The problem of such a theme has got a great theoretical meaning for analysis of the form/function relation in language: the same form performs more than one function. To generate the young students’ lexicon, the speaker has to use qualitatively different types of knowledge, both linguistic and extralinguistic (interactive and encyclopaedic), as well as the ability to reason. A number of theories try to explain why we should use “extra words” sometimes and how we understand their non- literal meaning, but the research is still far from being complete.

The practical value of research lies in the fact that it is impossible to reach a high level of linguistic competence without understanding the nature of speech and knowing typical youths’ speech of a particular language.

Thus the hypothesis of our theme is the following: if to study a lexicon of young generation of Americans, it becomes a little more accessible to professionals as it can not always be found in general dictionaries.

The tasks of research: analysis of the theories on different kinds of slang; finding out why interlocutors generate slang instead of saying exactly what they mean; comparing typical youths’ lexicon in English, American and in Russian; providing examples of slang in various communicational situations.

The object of research is slang as a communicational action that speakers perform by saying things in a certain way in a certain context.

The subject of research is slang as the main way in which the semantic content of a sentence can fail to determine the full force and content of the illocutionary act being performed in using the sentence.

Methods of research include critical analysis of scientific works on the subject, analysis of speech of native English and American speakers in various communicational situations, analysis of speech behavior of literary personages created by modern British and American writers.

At first it is necessary to tell some words about the term "slang", which is the main one in the paper and should be definite. The term "slang" is taken to denote the smallest independent unit of speech susceptible of being used in isolation.

Having analysed some courses of studying the foreign language it was interesting to find out, that the slang is not mentioned at all there, though, being one of the most productive ways of lexicon, could be a good way of updating the students’ active and passive vocabulary. Taking into account the opportunities, which are given by the knowledge of this way of formation the new words, it is easy to estimate a role of studying this material at schools and in the universities, it is natural that the beginning of presenting some items of this phenomenon to students is necessary to start from that moment, as soon as the students would have the sufficient lexical base for this purpose. It is possible to consider the third year of training as the most successful moment for the beginning of presenting the essence of this phenomenon to students.

It would be desirable to note the works of some authors, which were used in this work, such as: “English language nowdays” by L. Bauer, “The categories and types of present day English” by H. Marchand, and others.

ly:"�5sN
`�Ⱥ�,"serif"; mso-ansi-language:EN-US'>The present work is devoted to phrasal verbs as a significant feature of the language.

The goal of this work is to investigate some of them separately and in the context and try to identify the most common and distinct features they possess and to define their significance within the lexical units.

Object: English grammar.

Subject: peculiarities of English phrasal verbs.

The tasks we are to make, the abovementioned goal to achieve, are:

- to define the most common ways of formation of phrasal verbs;

- to classify phrasal verbs in certain groups, lexically and semantically;

-to present the distinctive character of phrasal verbs and their role in the language;

- to reveal the major difficulties the learner of a foreign language faces when translating phrasal verbs into Russian;

- to describe and systemize the use of phrasal verbs in different situations.

Hypothesis: phrasal verbs have multiplied in number and in use. If you demonstrate not only fluent speech but also a richness of the vocabulary you use in the everyday speech and what is more the complete understanding of phrasal verbs, you hear and say, then you may be considered to achieve the very top level of knowing the foreign language.

Methods of research:

-investigation and analysis of scientific literature on English grammar, morphology, lexicology;

- investigation of fiction literature and everyday situations on finding phrasal verbs.

Also in our work we use  the results of Ann Stephens researches of phrasal verbs. She is an American student of North Carolina University at Chapel Hill. The summary of her work was published at the internet site of the University.[3]

Содержание

Введение. 3

1. Особенности иностранного перевода официально-делового   и юридического материала  6

1.1 Лингвостилистическая характеристика официально-деловых документов и бумаг юридического характера. Стиль переводческого текста. 6

1.2 Основные требования к переводу официально-деловых писем. 12

2. Грамматические проблемы перевода официально-деловых и юридических материалов  21

2.1 Причины использования переводческих трансформаций. 21

2.2 Положение языковой единицы в системе языка при переводе документов  26

Заключение. 32

Список использованных источников. 34

Введение

В последние десятилетия ощущается большой интерес к переводу официально-деловых документов и юридических материалов.

В нашей стране это объясняется внедрением компьютерных технологий, оживлением мелкого и среднего бизнеса, проявлением интереса зарубежных инвесторов к Казахстанской экономике и политике.

В связи с этим чувствуется необходимость совершенствования переводческого дела, касающегося официально-деловых документов и юридических материалов. Именно этим и объясняется выбор одной из актуальных тем для исследования в данной курсовой работе.

Как известно, процесс перевода не  является простой заменой единиц одного языка единицами другого языка. Напротив, это сложный процесс, включающий ряд трудностей, которые необходимо преодолевать переводчику. Переводческие трансформации (замены) происходят по причине неполной общности или различия английского и русского языков. Общность между грамматическими свойствами русского и английского языков задается их общей принадлежностью  к индоевропейской семье и проявляется в наличии общих грамматических значений, категорий и функций, например: категорий числа у существительных, категорий степеней сравнения у прилагательных, категории времени у глагола, функциональной значимости порядка слов и т.п.

В то же время различие принципов грамматического строя, выражающееся в принадлежности этих языков к разным грамматическим группам, отражается в существенных различиях между грамматическими свойствами, например, в существовании несходных грамматических категорий: артикли в английском языке, деепричастие в русском языке; полнозначное согласование в русском языке, фиксированный порядок слов в английском языке; и т.д.

При этом не следует забывать, что как различие, так и сходство между грамматическими формами, их функциями и значениями может быть полным и неполным.  Полное сходство, как правило, встречается сравнительно редко, так же как и полное, некомпенсируемое различие.

В нашей работе рассматривается наиболее сложный, на наш взгляд, вид перевода официально-деловых и юридических материалов – грамматические трансформации.  Мы считаем его наиболее сложным в силу того, что он включает дополнительные трудности: применяя грамматические трансформации, переводчик должен быть очень осторожным и внимательным, чтобы не нарушить норм переводящего языка. Более того, в данной работе исследуются грамматические трансформации при устном переводе, что ещё в большей степени осложняет задачу, перед которой поставлен переводчик. Устный перевод, (синхронный, последовательный или перевод с листа) ставит переводчика в условия максимального сокращения времени, выделяемого на выбор грамматических конструкций для перевода. В то же время, устный переводчик, как известно, обладает большей свободой творчества, нежели письменный.  Таким образом, в качестве гипотезы мы выдвигаем следующее положение: при устном переводе возрастает влияние субъективного фактора по сравнению с письменным переводом, и, как следствие этого, количество грамматических проблем, используемых переводчиком, увеличивается.  

Таким образом, целью данной работы является определить существующие грамматические проблемы в переводе официально- деловых документов и юридических материалов и пути возможного их решения или недопущения. Для достижения этой цели мы поставили следующие задачи:

1. Изучить научно- методическую литературу по обозначенной теме курсовой работы

2.Охарактеризовать особенности иностранного перевода официально- делового и юридического материала.

3. Описать структуру и основные части и особенности оформления официально- деловых документов и юридических материалов.

4. Определить типичные проблемы при переводе официально-деловых и юридических материалов и возможные пути их решения.

Предметом исследования послужили тексты русской и англоязычной деловой переписки. Выбор в качестве материала текстов английской переписки обусловлен той огромной ролью, которую играют англоязычные тексты в мировом информационном пространстве.

Методы работы: анализ, сравнение, отбор, синтез.

Практическая значимость работы: материал работы может быть полезен для самообразовательной работы начинающих специалистов.

Новизна: Предпринята попытка самостоятельного определения типичных затруднений при переводе, которые испытывают молодые специалисты, в области перевода официально-деловых и юридических документов.

По своей структуре работа состоит из введения, первой теоретической главы и второй исследовательской, а также заключения, списка источников и приложения с характерными примерами деловых писем.

peakea�hc
`�Ⱥ�ot have anything in common with the idiom’s true etymology.

One of the questions in idiom research is the extent to which the image component of a figurative idiom fixed in its inner form reaches into its lexicalized meaning and consequently its pragmatics.

This paper explores two hypotheses: that traces of the image component of idiom semantics can have an effect on the usage of the given idiom, and that, in certain cases, its etymology (as a contributor to its imagery) can thus influence an idiom’s usage conditions.

Psycholinguistic and cognitive-semantic research suggests that speakers, when processing an idiom, map the conceptual domain evoked by the idiom’s lexical structure (source) onto another conceptual domain (target) that underlies that idiom’s lexicalized meaning.

The target concept can then be structured according to the structure of the source concept, so that the source can influence the lexicalized meaning. These are more or less plausible hypotheses about the ways in which motivation can influence the processing of an idiom. It may be that, consequently, such processing can also influence an idiom’s use.

The object of this paper can be considered as one that gives the detailed review of the ways English idioms motivation. It also helps to improve one’s understanding of the principal rules of translation which plays leading role while processing translation.

Our investigation uses Conventional Figurative Language Theory (CFLT)developed by Dobrovolskij and Piirainen (2005) as an appropriate theoretical framework. Central to this theory is the idea that figurative lexical units (pro- totypical idioms and conventional figurative one-word metaphors) differ from non-figurative units (i.e. from “normal” words, collocations etc.) in their semantics since their content plane consists not only of the lexicalized meaning of the conventional figurative unit, but also of the linguistically relevant traces of the underlying image. Dobrovolskij and Piirainen (2009) have developed initial stages of a theory of phraseology, which can be considered a specific implementation of CFLT. The main postulates of CFTL are as follows: idioms are a subset of phrasal lexemes, on the one hand, because of their constitutive characteristics: polylexicality (i.e. they consist of more than one word) and stability (i.e. they are not produced, but reproduced with approximately the same form and meaning).

Because of their idiomaticity, on the other hand, idioms have much in common with other figurative units in the lexicon. The prototypical idiom (the figurative idiom) can be interpreted on two different conceptual levels: on a primary level, i.e. on the level of its “literal” meaning which underlies its inner form, and on a second level, i.e. on the level of its figurative meaning. The latter is also called the lexicalized meaning which is the term we use in this paper. The so-called image component of an idiom takes the role of a semantic bridge between the two levels. What is meant by image component is neither the etymology nor the original image, but linguistically relevant traces of an image that are comprehensible for the majority of speakers. It is an additional conceptual link that mediates between the literal reading (fixed in the idiom’s lexical structure) and the lexicalized meaning of an idiom.

There are also certain points of intersection between CFLT and Conceptual Metaphor Theory. However, CMT is designed to capture fundamental properties of all possible metaphoric expressions, primarily, novel or dynamic metaphors. This makes CMT not quite adequate for describing idioms or conventional metaphors because conventional figurative expressions are mostly based on different principles. Patrick Hanks (2006) points out “that the distinction between conventional metaphors and literal meanings is less important than the distinction between dynamic metaphors and conventional metaphors. Dynamic metaphors are coined to express some new insight; conventional metaphors are just one more kind of normal use of language.” Moreover, many conventional metaphors and idioms are products of their time, so they cannot be accounted for without addressing elements of concrete, basic level images which are mostly culture-specific.

nbsp;&
�;n
`%����; compiling bilingual dictionaries.

1. writing lectures on lexicology and theory of translation.

Investigations have been carried out on a vast language material, based on lexicographic sources. We used mainly monolingual, bilingual and encyclopedic dictionaries.

The structure of the qualification paper.

It includes introduction, chapters, conclusion, list of used literature.

Содержание

1. Понятие грамматического потенциала текста. 5

1.1.  Воспроизведение прагматического потенциала оригинала при переводе. 5

    1.2.  Зависимость перевода от прагматической направленности оригинала. 12

2.  Передача в переводе коммуникативного эффекта оригинала. 18

2.1.  Прагматическая адаптация текста перевода. 18

    2.2. Передача внутрилингвистических значений. 23

Заключение. 34

Список использованных источников. 35

Введение

  С момента обретения независимости и признания международного статуса Республики Казахстан, ее внешнеполитическое ведомство и казахстанское общество ставит перед специалистами в области языкознания, и в первую очередь перед переводчиками, стратегические задачи. Предъявляют к ним требования к знанию и свободной ориентации во многих сложных аспектах перевода иностранных языков, текстов, точного и полного воспроизведения текстов на иностранных языках. В данной работе рассматривается одна из сложных языковых проблем, которая возникает при переводе английских текстов на русский язык. При этом проблемы перевода раскрываются, прежде всего, со стилистической точки зрения. Важно знать, не только как переводить, но почему надо переводить  именно так, а не иным способом. В большинстве случаев ответом на оба вопроса («как и «почему») будут определенные закономерности, выведенные на основе сопоставления  стилистических средств английского и русского языков. Именно в этом  и заключается стилистический подход к вопросам перевода.

  С другой стороны, процесс перевода протекает строго в рамках логического мышления. Переводить может только тот, кто  умеет логически мыслить. Логическое мышление также необходимо при переводе такого стилистического приема  как прагматика перевода.

Актуальность выбранной темы работы обуславливается тем, что, с одной стороны, суть прагматики перевода, прагматизма перевода заключается в стремлении к наиболее точному, полному, конкретному переводу текста, но вместе с тем, не ограничивается только лишь дословным переводом, копированием и расшифровкой готовых шаблонов, а воспроизводит текст в  том или ином смысловом контексте, отражает значение текста в полном его разнообразии, дает целостную картину в понимании иностранных текстов. 

Гипотезой работы является предположение того, что если переводчик подходит к переводу текста творчески, «с прагматикой», его будет значительно легче перевести в контексте, учитывая особенности и стилистику текста, богатство языка и культуру народа.

Целью данной работы является попытка изучения явления прагматика, основных приемов перевода, а также употребление приемов перевода прагматики в русском и английском языках.

  В соответствии с целью работы необходимо решить следующие задачи:

- дать определение прагматики и основным приемам перевода;

- раскрыть их содержание;

- показать основные  трудности перевода текстов с помощью перевода прагматики;

- дать представление о правилах и закономерностях применения основных приемов перевода прагматики;

- найти наиболее приемлемые приемы перевода прагматики;

- добиться адекватности, не нарушая при этом норм и традиций русского и английского языков.

Объектом исследования являются  приемы перевода прагматики.

Методы исследования – при написании данной работы использованы методы сравнения, сопоставления, анализа, объективности, дедукции, индукции.

l� p
Ⱥ���also a richness of the vocabulary you use in the everyday speech and what is more the complete understanding of phrasal verbs, you hear and say, then you may be considered to achieve the very top level of knowing the foreign language.

Methods of research:

-investigation and analysis of scientific literature on English grammar, morphology, lexicology;

- investigation of fiction literature and everyday situations on finding phrasal verbs.

Also in our work we use  the results of Ann Stephens researches of phrasal verbs. She is an American student of North Carolina University at Chapel Hill. The summary of her work was published at the internet site of the University.[3]

Содержание

Введение. 3

1.  Семантические особенности оценочной лексики в английском и русском языках  5

1.1 Компонентное выражение концептов «мужественность»/ «женственность», характеризующих внешность человека. 5

1.2 Обозначение концепта «красота» во фразеологии. 12

2.  Сравнение языковых особенностей в сфере «одежда и мода». 19

2.1   Передача стиля одежды.. 19

2.2 Английские заимствования в русском языке в индустрии моды.. 20

Заключение. 31

Список использованной литературы.. 33

 Введение

Язык отражает мир с различных сторон. Прежде всего в языке представлена объективная действительность, имеющиеся в мире предметы, свойства, действия, включая человека с его мыслями, чувствами, поступками, и их соотношения. Эту сторону языковых выражений можно рассматривать как дескриптивную. В языке отражается также взаимодействие действительности и человека в самых разных аспектах, одним из которых является оценочный.

На протяжении всей истории человечества о красоте и прекрасном писали мыслители разных научных школ и направлений. Это неслучайно, поскольку данный концепт относится к числу важнейших ценностных ориентиров и оказывает влияние на человеческую деятельность, определяет отношение человека к другим людям и окружающему миру. В научной литературе вопрос эстетических оценок и некоторые аспекты концепта «красота» рассматривались в трудах В.М. Богуславского (1995), в работе Ю.В. Мещеряковой (2004) и др. Несмотря на столь пристальное внимание к данной теме, в ней продолжают открываться новые стороны, возникают вопросы, связанные с изменяющимися тенденциями, взглядами и оценками человеком окружающего мира и себя в нем.

Актуальность исследования объясняется недостаточной разработанностью в сопоставительном аспекте русского и английского языков ряда направлений, для чего необходимо выполнить следующие задачи:

– систематизировать субъективно-оценочные и ассоциативные смыслы концепта «красота»;

– описать эталоны и когнитивные метафоры красоты;

– исследовать соотношение понятий «красивый» и «модный»;

– систематизировать способы выражения красоты существующими языковыми средствами с точки зрения продуктивной речевой деятельности;

– показать динамику развития концепта «красота» в русском и английском языках в сопоставительном аспекте, т.к. необходимость в таких данных существует в переводческой и литературной практике.

Цель: исследование направлено на изучение особенностей перевода  языковых средств обозначения красоты внешности людей (мужчин, женщин) и предметов одежды, используемых в индустрии моды на примере английского и русского языков.

Объектом исследования является лексика внешности человека и обозначения предметов индустрии моды в английском и русском языках.

Предмет - семантические особенности перевода данных подгрупп.

Для достижения цели необходимо использовать следующие методы: анализа, синтеза, дедукции, индукции, контекстологичного анализа, сравнительного анализа.

Содержание

Введение                                                                                                 4

1. Реалия как объект перевода                                                             5

1.1 Реалия в языке                                                                                  5

1.2 Осмысление реалий                                                                         8                                      

1.3 Приемы передачи реалий в переводе                                             9

1.3.1 Транскрипция и транслитерация                                               10

1.3.2 Создание нового/сложного слова                                              12

1.3.3 Уподобляющий перевод                                                             14

1.3.4 Контекстуальный перевод                                                          15

1.3.5 Гипонимический перевод                                                           15

1.3.6 Замена реалии                                                                              16

1.4 Перевод фразеологизмов, содержащих реалии                            16

1.5 Выводы                                                                                             19

2. Реалии в художественной литературе                                          21

2.1 Транскрипция                                                                                  21

2.2 Транслитерация                                                                               23                       

2.3 Калька                                                                                               23

2.4 Полукалька                                                                                       24

2.5 Уподобляющий перевод                                                                 25

2.6 Контекстуальный перевод                                                              27

2.7 Гипонимический перевод                                                               28

2.8 Замена реалии исходного языка                                                   

      на реалию языка перевода                                                              29

2.9 Передача чужой для исходного языка

и языка перевода реалии                                                                30

2.10 Опущение                                                                                       30

2.11 Выводы                                                                                           31

Заключение                                                                                             33

Список научной литературы                                                                 35

Список источников языкового материала                                           37

Список лексикографических источников                                            38

Введение

Переводоведение как наука по мере своего развития охватывает все большее количество проблем и спорных положений. Пытаясь ответить на вопрос «как переводить?», исследователи фокусируют внимание на различных объектах перевода, которые зачастую являются источниками противоречивых мнений.

Темой данной курсовой работы являются языковые реалии и способы их перевода; эта проблема является одной из наиболее спорных в переводоведении.

Актуальность данной темы заключается в том, что переводчик сталкивается с проблемой перевода реалий очень часто. Реалии, относясь к несовпадающим элементам языка, обозначая понятия, чуждые для других культур, всегда представляют в процессе перевода особую сложность. Эти сложности, с другой стороны обеспечивают интерес к данной проблеме.

Целью данной работы является реалий как лингвистических единиц и обзор основных способов их перевода. Для решения поставленной задачи в работе представлена классификация реалий по различным признакам, а также основные способы их передачи в язык перевода. Более детальное рассмотрение указанных способов приведено во второй, практической, части работы на основе примеров, взятых из оригиналов и переводов произведений художественной литературы.

Материалом для данной работы послужили исследования таких известных переводоведов, как Комиссаров В.Н., Влахов С., Флорин С., Федоров А.В. и других. В своих работах они предлагают описательный и сопоставительный методы исследования, на которых основывается данная работа.

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Содержание

Введение……………………………………………………………………        3

1. Теоретические предпосылки исследования перевода смысловых

имён собственных…………………………………………………………         7

1.1   Понятия «перевод» и «переводимость»……………………………       7

1.2   Смысловое имя собственное и его семантическая

характеристика…………………………………………………….……         12

1.3   Функционирование мифологических имён собственных

в тексте………………………………………………………………         21

2. Анализ перевода смысловых имен собственных в художественной литературе…………………………………………………………………          31

2.1 Основные приемы передачи смысловых имён собственных в

рассказах О’Генри………………………………………………………        31

2.2 Вымышленные имена собственные в контексте «фэнтезийных» произведений ……………………………………………………………   37

Заключение…………………………………………………………………        58

Список использованных источников…………………………………….        62     

Список лексикографических источников………………………………..        65

Введение

Данная работа посвящена проблеме перевода имени собственного, функционирующего в качестве смыслового в художественных и публицистических текстах.

Специфика перевода имени собственного (далее ИС) всегда оставалась спорным вопросом в лингвистической теории. Лингвисты ведут дискуссии о сущности значения ИС, то неоправданно его сужая, низводя статус ИС до слова-метки [15, c.27], то ограничивая область его означивания контекстом речевого окружения [44, c.16]. Это говорит о сложной, противоречивой природе ИС, в переводе которого происходит столкновение лингвистического и экстралингвистического планов.

Являясь единицей языка, ИС служит для номинации объектов социальной действительности. Субъективность функционирования ИС проявляется в индивидуальности его выбора в актах номинации, а также в явлении ассоциативного переноса существенных качеств объекта, для означивания которого ИС используется, на значение самого ИС, что в свою очередь отражается на дальнейшем функционировании ИС. ИС, таким образом, обладает способностью накапливать экстралингвистическую информацию о своем денотате, которая в результате логических процедур анализа и синтеза может становиться частью семантики ИС.

Объектом данного исследования является перевод смыслового имени собственного (далее СИС) в текстовых пространствах.

Предметом исследования выступает смысловое функционирование имени собственного.

Актуальность исследования определяется тем, что в связи с расцветом постмодернистского течения в литературе в центре внимания исследователей оказался лингвистический механизм явления интертекстуальности, базирующийся на понятиях прецедентных текстов и прецедентных имен как свернутых мнемонических программ таких текстов. Несмотря на то, что проблемами прецедентности и интертекстуальности заняты многие отечественные и зарубежные лингвисты [11, c.217], до сих пор не выработано четких классификаций и действенных критериев дифференциации элементов цитатной речи. Поэтому вполне закономерно встает вопрос о неоднородности интертекстуальных элементов и, в частности, смысловых имен собственных как их разновидности.

Очевидно, что одни СИС обладают более устойчивым ассоциативным значением и, соответственно, приближены к области единиц языка. Тогда как значение других СИС сугубо контекстуально и варьируется от автора к автору. В этой связи считаем необходимым выработать критерии, позволяющие отграничить группу СИС с относительно стабильным значением от СИС с окказиональной семантикой.

Во-вторых, существуют многочисленные работы, детально исследующие особенности функционирования ИС в художественном тексте [1, c.177]. Вместе с тем, мало публикаций посвящено функционированию ИС в других стилях. Поэтому целесообразно провести сопоставительный анализ употребления СИС в нескольких функциональных стилях, что поможет глубже изучить специфику перевода различных групп СИС и выявить их отличительные черты.

Целью работы является детальное рассмотрение приёмов, методов, способов и моделей перевода смысловых имён собственных; описание нестандартных случаев передачи на язык перевода смысловых имён собственных, обладающих индивидуально-художественным значением.

Цель исследования определила задачи работы:

1 Раскрыть специфику перевода СИС и определить ее роль в реализации смыслового механизма.

2) Выявить место СИС среди других приемов цитатной речи.

3) Раскрыть функции СИС в художественных и публицистических текстах, а также показать способность СИС участвовать в создании вертикального контекста произведения и на его основе образовывать подтекст сообщения.

5) Исследовать смысловой процесс с позиций автора и реципиента сообщения.

Методологическими основаниями исследования явились некоторые положения когнитивной лингвистики: понятия языковой личности, языковой картины мира, концепта.

При анализе языкового статуса ИС использовались данные англоанглийских толковых словарей, мифологические и «фэнтезийные» произведения английских авторов. По причине большого влияния экстралингвистических факторов и национально-культурной специфики на значение СИС в нашем исследовании мы привлекали данные энциклопедических и страноведческих словарей.

Научная новизна работы состоит в изучении переводческого процесса на примере имен собственных, что, с одной стороны, позволит тщательно исследовать сущность феномена СИС, а, с другой стороны, перенести  результаты исследования на более широкие сферы его функционирования.

Теоретическая и практическая значимость исследования. Результаты предлагаемой дипломной работы могут быть полезны при анализе функционирования СИС в других функциональных стилях в разных языках. Описанные методики анализа перевода СИС могут быть применены при составлении словарей-тезаурусов, что, в свою очередь, поможет в определении объема филологического минимума, необходимого для нормального протекания процесса понимания в иноязычной среде.
Контексты, содержащие семантический повтор СИС, могут быть использованы как средство получения инференционного знания при чтении литературы на иностранных языках, что способствует развитию языковой догадки.

p>2.Охарактеризовать особенности иностранного перевода официально- делового и юридического материала.

3. Описать структуру и основные части и особенности оформления официально- деловых документов и юридических материалов.

4. Определить типичные проблемы при переводе официально-деловых и юридических материалов и возможные пути их решения.

Предметом исследования послужили тексты русской и англоязычной деловой переписки. Выбор в качестве материала текстов английской переписки обусловлен той огромной ролью, которую играют англоязычные тексты в мировом информационном пространстве.

Методы работы: анализ, сравнение, отбор, синтез.

Практическая значимость работы: материал работы может быть полезен для самообразовательной работы начинающих специалистов.

Новизна: Предпринята попытка самостоятельного определения типичных затруднений при переводе, которые испытывают молодые специалисты, в области перевода официально-деловых и юридических документов.

По своей структуре работа состоит из введения, первой теоретической главы и второй исследовательской, а также заключения, списка источников и приложения с характерными примерами деловых писем.

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`�Ⱥ�ot have anything in common with the idiom’s true etymology.

One of the questions in idiom research is the extent to which the image component of a figurative idiom fixed in its inner form reaches into its lexicalized meaning and consequently its pragmatics.

This paper explores two hypotheses: that traces of the image component of idiom semantics can have an effect on the usage of the given idiom, and that, in certain cases, its etymology (as a contributor to its imagery) can thus influence an idiom’s usage conditions.

Psycholinguistic and cognitive-semantic research suggests that speakers, when processing an idiom, map the conceptual domain evoked by the idiom’s lexical structure (source) onto another conceptual domain (target) that underlies that idiom’s lexicalized meaning.

The target concept can then be structured according to the structure of the source concept, so that the source can influence the lexicalized meaning. These are more or less plausible hypotheses about the ways in which motivation can influence the processing of an idiom. It may be that, consequently, such processing can also influence an idiom’s use.

The object of this paper can be considered as one that gives the detailed review of the ways English idioms motivation. It also helps to improve one’s understanding of the principal rules of translation which plays leading role while processing translation.

Our investigation uses Conventional Figurative Language Theory (CFLT)developed by Dobrovolskij and Piirainen (2005) as an appropriate theoretical framework. Central to this theory is the idea that figurative lexical units (pro- totypical idioms and conventional figurative one-word metaphors) differ from non-figurative units (i.e. from “normal” words, collocations etc.) in their semantics since their content plane consists not only of the lexicalized meaning of the conventional figurative unit, but also of the linguistically relevant traces of the underlying image. Dobrovolskij and Piirainen (2009) have developed initial stages of a theory of phraseology, which can be considered a specific implementation of CFLT. The main postulates of CFTL are as follows: idioms are a subset of phrasal lexemes, on the one hand, because of their constitutive characteristics: polylexicality (i.e. they consist of more than one word) and stability (i.e. they are not produced, but reproduced with approximately the same form and meaning).

Because of their idiomaticity, on the other hand, idioms have much in common with other figurative units in the lexicon. The prototypical idiom (the figurative idiom) can be interpreted on two different conceptual levels: on a primary level, i.e. on the level of its “literal” meaning which underlies its inner form, and on a second level, i.e. on the level of its figurative meaning. The latter is also called the lexicalized meaning which is the term we use in this paper. The so-called image component of an idiom takes the role of a semantic bridge between the two levels. What is meant by image component is neither the etymology nor the original image, but linguistically relevant traces of an image that are comprehensible for the majority of speakers. It is an additional conceptual link that mediates between the literal reading (fixed in the idiom’s lexical structure) and the lexicalized meaning of an idiom.

There are also certain points of intersection between CFLT and Conceptual Metaphor Theory. However, CMT is designed to capture fundamental properties of all possible metaphoric expressions, primarily, novel or dynamic metaphors. This makes CMT not quite adequate for describing idioms or conventional metaphors because conventional figurative expressions are mostly based on different principles. Patrick Hanks (2006) points out “that the distinction between conventional metaphors and literal meanings is less important than the distinction between dynamic metaphors and conventional metaphors. Dynamic metaphors are coined to express some new insight; conventional metaphors are just one more kind of normal use of language.” Moreover, many conventional metaphors and idioms are products of their time, so they cannot be accounted for without addressing elements of concrete, basic level images which are mostly culture-specific.

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1. writing lectures on lexicology and theory of translation.

Investigations have been carried out on a vast language material, based on lexicographic sources. We used mainly monolingual, bilingual and encyclopedic dictionaries.

The structure of the qualification paper.

It includes introduction, chapters, conclusion, list of used literature.